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\listoverridecount0\ls5}}{\info{\title HEALING ART}{\author Lesley Robertson}{\operator jvs}{\creatim\yr2003\mo10\dy22\hr12\min6}{\revtim\yr2003\mo10\dy22\hr12\min6}{\printim\yr2003\mo10\dy14\hr12\min2}{\version2}{\edmins11}{\nofpages15}{\nofwords7803}
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\b\f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 HEALING AESTHETICS
\par PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ADRIAN STOKES }{\cs19\b0\f0\super \chftn {\footnote {\listtext\pard\plain\s18 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 1\tab}\pard\plain \s18\ql \fi-360\li720\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx720\faauto\ls5\adjustright\rin0\lin720\itap0 
\f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 
This paper arises out of my contribution to the Stokes Centenary Conference held in Bristol in 2002.  My thanks to Francesca Bion, Martin Golding, David Maclagan, Peter Rudnytsky, Richard Read, Andrea Sabbadini, and Hank Stam for their help with, and comm
ents on earlier versions.  }{
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s18 \hich\af0\dbch\af0\loch\f0 2\tab}}{\f0\fs24 Work address SSPSSR, Cornwallis North-East, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NF, email: }{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\f0\fs24  HYPERLINK "mailto:jvs@kent.ac.uk" }{\f0\fs24 
{\*\datafield 
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}{\fldrslt {\cs25\f0\fs24\ul\cf2 jvs@kent.ac.uk}}}}}{\f0 
\par 
\par Janet Sayers }{\cs19\f0\super \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s18\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {}}}{\f0 
\par }\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\b\f0 ABSTRACT: }{\f0 Psychoanalytic aesthetics often overlooks the healing outwardness of art.  Countering this oversight, this article focuses on the work of the
 generally little-known art critic, Adrian Stokes.  It contrasts his writing about art with that of Freud, Jung, and Klein, and links it instead with the aesthetics of Ruskin, Pater, Nietzsche, Bradley, and Pound, and with the work of the post-Freudian an
alysts, Milner and Bion.
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs20 \tab \tab 
\par KEY WORDS: }{\b0\f0\fs20 Aesthetics, Freud, Jung, Klein, Stokes, Milner, Bion
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 \tab 
\par \tab Art and psychoanalysis have been described as successors to religion in transforming disquieting unknowably 
transcendence and abjection into knowable semiotic shape and form (see e.g. Kristeva 1974, 1980).  Art arguably transubstantiates matter into spirit, body into mind, inner psychology into outer matter.  Psychological aesthetics has accordingly been descri
bed as relating \'93the actual (aesthetic) qualities of painting, such as line, colour, handling, composition and so on and the inner (psychological) effects that these have on the spectator\'94 (Maclagan, 2001, p.7).
\par \tab Ironically, however, in writing about art, p
sychoanalysts often forget its outward character so much do they focus instead on its inner psychological motivation and effect.  The art critic, Adrian Stokes, by contrast was, and remains something of an exception in attending to both aspects of art.  I
n
 the following pages I will seek to demonstrate this by relating his aesthetics to that of John Ruskin, Walter Pater, Friedrich Nietzsche, F.H. Bradley, and Ezra Pound, and to the account of psychoanalysis and art developed by the post-Freudian, post-Klei
nian analysts, Marion Milner and Wilfred Bion.  I will begin, though, with Freud, Jung, and Klein, who was Stokes\rquote  analyst, and with whose theories Stokes\rquote  aesthetics are often misleadingly conflated.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\lang1031\langfe1033\langnp1031 Freud, Jung, and Klein
\par }\pard\plain \s17\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 One of Freud\rquote s earliest publishe
d references to art is in his case history of an 18-year-old, Dora, whom he analyzed in the final months of 1900.  In association to one of her dreams she recalled standing for two hours \'93rapt in silent admiration\'94
, as Freud put it, contemplating Raphael\rquote s painting, }{\i\f0 The Sistine Madonna}{\f0 .  Freud notes that when he asked her \'93what had pleased her so much about the picture she could find no clear answer to make\'94
 to which she eventually replied, \'93The Madonna\'94 (Freud, 1905, p. 104 n. 2).  Focusing on what the Madonna might inwardly symbolize to the neglect of Dora\rquote s outward contemplation of the picture itself, Freud concluded, \'93The \lquote Madonna
\rquote  was obviously Dora herself\'94, adding, \'93the \lquote Madonna\rquote  is a favourite counter-idea in the mind of girls who feel themselves oppressed by imputations of sexual guilt\'94 (Freud, 1905, p.104 n.2).
\par }\pard \s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0 \tab He adopted a similarly \'93pathographical\'94 stance, as he put it (Freud, 1910, p.130), in writing about the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci.  He described the }{\i\f0 
Mona Lisa}{\f0 , (painted about ten years after Leonardo\rquote s mother died) as resulting from its subject, Mona Lisa del Giocondo, awakening Leonardo\rquote 
s previously repressed unconscious infantile sexual fantasies about his mother.  Leonardo expressed these self-same fantasies, Freud argued, in the picture, }{\i\f0 Madonna and Child with St Anne}{\f0 , painted at about the same time as }{\i\f0 Mona Lisa}
{\f0 .  The Madonna painting, said Freud, expressed Leonardo\rquote s fantasy of himself as the Christ child adored by the Madonna and her similarly beautiful and youthful mother, St Anne,
 just as he imagined himself adored by his mother and her mother, and then by his stepmother and the mother of his father with whom he went to live when he was five.  Applying this inwardly-oriented stance to art generally, Freud wrote
\par }\pard \s17\ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0 
An artist is originally a man who turns away from reality because he cannot come to terms with the renunciation of instinctual satisfaction which it at first demands, and who allows his erotic and ambitious wishes full play in the life of phantasy.  He fi
nds the way back to reality, however, from this world of phantasy by making use of special gifts to mould his phantasies into truths of a new kind, which are valued by men as precious reflections of reality.  (Freud, 1911, p. 224) 
\par }\pard \s17\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0 In an essay begun the next year about Michelangelo\rquote s statue, }{\i\f0 Moses}{\f0 
, he again overlooked the outward character of the work involved in focusing instead on the statue\rquote s inner meaning.  He interpreted it as depicting Moses\rquote  repression of the rage he felt on descending from Mount Sinai with God\rquote 
s ten commandments only to discover his people worshipping a golden calf.  Michelangelo, he claimed, thereby expressed the repression of his own rage and, in doing so, reproached his patron, the Pope, for not similarly \'93rising superior to his ow
n nature\'94 (Freud, 1914a, p. 234).
\par Unlike artists and their public focused on inner reality, argued Freud, psychoanalysts should counter the inward-looking, narcissistic self-preoccupation of their patients by enabling them to engage with outer reality.  Fr
eud accordingly criticized Jung and his followers for turning their backs on outward reality and encouraging their patients\rquote  \'93inward concentration by means of introversion\'94
 (Freud, 1914b, p. 63).  Undaunted, Jung continued to pursue his inner fantasies and
 dreams during his breakdown in the First World War.  He encouraged his patients to do the same not least through painting and drawing, as he too pursued his inner world in creating his first mandala in 1916, of which he later wrote
\par }\pard \s17\ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0 I sketched every mornin
g in a notebook a small circular drawing, a mandala, which seemed to correspond to my inner situation at the time.  With the help of these drawings I could observe my psychic transformations from day to day (Jung, 1961, p. 220)
\par }\pard \s17\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0 The psychoanalyst, Melanie K
lein, although she was not a Jungian, also allied art with inner transformation and healing.  She argued that art is impelled by facing and seeking to repair an inner world despoiled and emptied by damage done by hatred of those who figure in it.  Her fol
lower, Hanna Segal, illustrates this process as follows with the example of Picasso\rquote s image of the head of a dying horse in }{\i\f0 Guernica }{\f0 and other paintings
\par }\pard \s17\ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0 The horse is a dying victim, yet it is his enormous teeth that stand out, symbolizing, I think, its own,
 and our own, oral aggression.  The broken lines, the fragmentary presentation of the human and animal figures, also correspond to unconscious phantasies of fragmented objects, victims of sadism.  The power of the impact is due to Picasso\rquote 
s capacity to mobilize, via the associative emotions, deeper unconscious ones.  (Segal, 1991, p. 80)
\par }\pard \s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0 \tab In focusing on inner fantasy, however, Segal, like her precursors -- Freud, Jung, and Klein \endash 
 says little about the outward sensory and sensuous aesthetic aspects of the a
rt-works she analyses.  Klein even went so far as to depict outwardness, at least in her patients, as involving manic flight from inner reality or projective identification defence against inner reality by identifying with it in others.  Ironically the be
ginning of her account of outwardness in these terms can be found in her analysis of a patient who may well have been Stokes.
\par }{\b\f0 
\par Klein and Stokes}{\f0 
\par }\pard\plain \s20\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 
Klein (1929) first advanced her theory of art as facing and healing inner reality in a talk given in May 1929 about the paintings of a Scandinavian artist, Ruth Kj\'e4
r.  Soon after, in December 1929, Klein began seeing Adrian Stokes as a patient in analysis.  Born in London on 27 October 1902, he had suffered with depression following the death of his oldest brother, P
hilip, in the First World War.  After studying philosophy, politics, and economics at Oxford, his depression was compounded in the 1920s by various upsetting sexual encounters \endash  both homosexual and heterosexual \endash 
 for which he sought treatment with Klein.  His resulting analysis lasted from 1929 till 1936.  He again went into analysis with Klein in 1938 -- the year he married the painter Margaret Mellis \endash 
 and, in 1946, went into analysis with her yet again during the dissolution of this marriage and increasing involvement with Margaret\rquote s younger sister, Ann, whom he married in 1947.  (For further details see e.g. Sayers, 2000).
\par }\pard\plain \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 According to Stokes\rquote 
 biographer, Richard Read (2002), Stokes was the patient Klein called Mr B in her 1932 book, }{\i\f0\fs24 The Psycho-Analysis of Children}{\f0\fs24 .  Certainly she depicted Mr B\rquote s writing in terms similar to those she used to depict Kj\'e4r
\rquote s paintings, namely as facing and repairing inner reality.  By contrast she attributed the ills for which Mr B sought treatment to defensive flight from h
is inner world.  His homosexuality, she argued, was one such example.  It was due, she said, to his displacing fears about inner destruction and emptiness onto women, and to his defensively fleeing inner reality by idealizing the outwardness of men
\rquote s sexuality.  For Mr B, she wrote, \'93only the male, in whom all was manifest and clearly visible and who concealed no secrets within himself, was the natural and beautiful object\'94
 (Klein, 1932, p. 266).  She explained his feelings of persecution similarly.  They too were an effect, she said, of displacing \'93fears of internal dangers into the external world\'94
 (Klein, 1932, p. 267).  Another example was his frequently going abroad.  In his autobiographical book, }{\i\f0\fs24 Inside Out}{\f0\fs24 , Stokes (1947) contrasted, in terms of darknes
s and light, his London childhood self and himself as a student in Rapallo and other towns and cities in Italy.  Mr B was the same.  \'93In contrast to his native town, which he thought of as a dark, lifeless and ruined place,\'94 wrote Klein, \'93
he pictured an imaginary city full of life, light and beauty, and sometimes found his vision realized, though only for a short time, in the cities he visited in other countries\'94 (Klein, 1932, p. 273).
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 \tab On the other hand, as Klein theorized it, his writing repaired his inner world.  Or, as Klein put it, perhaps thinking of Stokes\rquote  1932 book, }{\i\f0\fs24 
The Quattro Cento}{\f0\fs24 , about Italian Renaissance architecture and sculpture, \'93His work in writing his book and the whole process of mental production entailed by it were linked in his uncons
cious to restoring the inside of his body and creating children\'94
 (Klein, 1932, p. 275).  She concluded that it was through analyzing and thus countering his flight to outer reality (in, for instance, idealizing the penis of his male lovers) that she enable
d him to focus on his inner world and thereby helped him recover from the symptoms bringing him into treatment.  As soon as his various inner fears had been analyzed, she reported, his \'93
capacity for work was still further increased and his heterosexual position reinforced\'94 (Klein, 1932, p. 276).   }{\b\f0\fs24 
\par \tab }{\f0\fs24 Stokes might have been Mr B.  Richard Read claims that he was also the patient referred to by Klein as  \'93C\'94 in a talk she gave in 1934.  Illustrating defensive flight from inner to outer reality, and specificall
y flight to manic control of others, and to what Klein (1946) later theorized as paranoid-schizoid splitting and projective identification with others in defence against inner reality, she recounted as follows one of C\rquote s dreams: \'93
he was travelling with his parents in a railway-carriage  . . .  felt that he was \lquote managing the whole thing\rquote   . . .  urinated  . . .  into a basin  . . . a Chinese vase\'94
 (Klein, 1935, pp. 134-5).  Another dream included what could be called a paranoid-schizoid image of C\rquote s mother t
orturing something by frying it alive.  It was preceded by other paranoid-schizoid or persecutory feelings, including fear that Klein's match, in being split off when she lit her cigarette, might fly off and hit him.  She did it the wrong way, he said, ad
ding (and it should be pointed out that Stokes was a noted tennis-player), \'93like his father, who served the balls the wrong way at tennis\'94 (Klein, 1935, p. 136).  
\par \tab Klein concluded that healing persecutory fear and manic management and control of others entails facing and restoring inner reality rather than taking \'93flight to external \lquote good\rquote  objects\'94
 (Klein, 1935, p. 145).  With this she introduced her theory of the depressive position.  Her colleague, Joan Riviere, emphasized its inwardness as follows 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 The content of the depressive position (as Melanie Klein has shewn) is the situation in which all one\rquote s loved ones }{\i\f0\fs24 within}{\f0\fs24 
 are dead and destroyed, all goodness is dispersed, lost, in fragments, wasted and scattered to the winds; nothing is left }{\i\f0\fs24 within}{\f0\fs24  but utter desolation. (Riviere, 1936, p. 313 \endash  italics in original)
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 She went on to describe art \endash  specifically Ibsen\rquote 
s plays -- as facing and repairing this inner situation (Riviere, 1952).  Stokes, by contrast, focused on the healing outwardness of the visual and p
erforming arts both in his writing whilst he was in analysis with Klein and in his more explicitly psychoanalytic writing about art from 1945 onwards.
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 Pre-1945 Stokes
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 \tab Examples of Stokes\rquote  pre-1945 writing about the healing outwardness of art include his no
ting in an article published just before his analysis with Klein began the beneficence of marble carving as \'93expression of growth out of the marble, upon the surface\'94
 (Stokes, 1929, p. 46).  Previously he had suffered a writing block following the publicat
ion of his first two books in the 1920s.  Healed from this block during his analysis he became increasingly productive during the 1930s.  But, despite being in analysis with Klein, he continued to focus, as in his pre-analysis article, on the beneficence 
and healing value of art\rquote s outwardness.  In this he drew on the aesthetics, as I indicated in introducing this article, of Ruskin, Pater, Nietzsche, Bradley, and Pound.
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Ezra Pound wrote of imagery as \'93that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time\'94
 (in Read, 2002, p. 167).  Stokes similarly praised the painter Giorgione for valuing the instantaneous character of painting in that one can take in its outwardness sensorily \'93at a single glance (una sola occhiata)\'94.  He also praised Georgione
\rquote s \'93love of space\'94 (Stokes, 1930b, pp. 482, 489).  In this Stokes both approved of, and took issue with Pound, specifically with his inward-looking neo-Platonist essentialism.  By contrast he recommended Giorgione\rquote s \'93
Aristotelian grasp of the outward reality of the four elements\'94  (Read, 2002, p.170), and Giorgione\rquote s \'93opposition to Plato\rquote s transcendentalism\'94
 (Stokes, 1930b, p. 496).  And, whereas Pound used Italian art to inspire his poetry, Stokes used it to inspire his prose.  He adopted the technique of }{\i\f0\fs24 ekphrasis}{\f0\fs24 , of creating \'93
verbal equivalents to visual experience that bring art works to the imaginative eye\'94 (Read, 2002, p. 42).
\par  Stokes, however, was also akin to Pound in admiring the fifteenth century Italian warlord, Sigismondo Malatesta. 
 Most of all Stokes admired the outwardness of the art Sigismondo commissioned.  It illustrated, he said, the very best of early Renaissance art as emblem of life.  \'93Externalization is the mode of existence,\'94 he explained.  Renaissance humanism \'93
forced men to manifest their colour  . . .  embody the soul  . . .  clear as the midday light\'94 (Stokes, 1930a, pp. 18, 20).  The supreme example, Stokes argued, was Sigismondo\rquote 
s transformation, in 1450, of a Gothic church into a classical monument to his love for Isotta degli Atti.  Their inter-twined initials \endash  \'93S\'94 and  \'93I\'94 \endash 
 adorn the resulting temple, or Tempio.  It objectifies, wrote Stokes, Sigismondo\rquote s inner energy
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 sudden like a glimpse, firm like a flower in full bloom  . . .  Energy  . . .  pent-up to instant
 manifestation  . . .  mass all at once like mountains in unbroken sunlight  . . .  Sigismondo  . . .  stabilized his spirit by building the Tempio, an emblem more complete than any other yet created by man  . . .  Sigismondo was compressed with will to b
e manifest, so too the old stones which he touched, he and his like  (Stokes, 1930a, pp. 20, 21, 25)
\par }\pard\plain \s20\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 
Stokes was also influenced in his theories about the healing value of art by Walter Pater.  On the one hand, he took issue with what he called \'93the excessive inwardness of Pater\rquote s confusion of space and time\'94
 (Read, 2002, p. 145).  He also criticized Pater\rquote s enthusiasm for art approximating music in achieving its effect over time, just as he implicitly questioned the celebration of \'93the music and song in the Cantos which\'94, he said, \'93
Pound heard deep in the marbles of the Tempio\'94 (Read, 2002, p. 87).  On the other hand, in celebrating the Tempio\rquote s immediately present outwardness, Stokes approved Pater\rquote s emphasis on form as that which \'93all art constantly strives
 after\'94 (Pater, 1877, p. 129).  He wrote of form as externalization, as \'93magic stuff which coagulates expression  . . .  manifestation as the object\'94 (Stokes, 1930a, p. 26).
\par }\pard\plain \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 He wrote of the essence of Quattro Cento art as \'93the South in which life is outwar
d, spread in space  . . .  [with] southern stone  . . . repository for humanistic fantasies, particularly those symbolizing southern compulsion to throw life outward\'94
 (Stokes, 1932, p. 34).  In this Stokes was also influenced by, and critical of John Ruski
n.  Whereas Ruskin (1853) praised Venetian Gothic -- its combination of Arabic or Byzantine with Dominican and Franciscan religious influences -- Stokes praised the Quattro Cento marbles of Venice as emblem of human life\rquote s \'93
turning outward into definite form of inner ferment\'94 (Stokes, 1932, p. 40).  Depicting the years before the Renaissance as \'93centuries of spiritual torture and enhancement\'94
, he celebrated Renaissance artists in Nietzschean terms, as driven by the humanist compulsion 
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 
to throw life outwards  . . .  its highest achievement . . .  a mass-effect in which every temporal or flux element was transformed into a spatial steadiness  . . .  an emblematic art  . . .  in that part of the South where light induces even a Northerner
 to contemplate things in their positional or spatial aspect, as objects revealed, as symbols of objective realization (Stokes, 1932, p. 40)
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 The Greeks of classical antiquity, Stokes maintained, did the same in recognizing the \'93solid outwardness\'94 of marble as \'93key to all humanism\'94
 (Stokes, 1932, p. 44).  To this he added, \'93in so far as all life is an attempt to transform subject into object, an outwardness of a complete not a withdrawn subject, southern art is the mirror of human aim\'94 (Stokes, 1932, p. 46). 
 He accordingly deplored the Renaissance art Pater celebrated in Florence in so far as its \'93reserve of power engendered by primitive stiffness has been denied its dramatic revelatory effect\'94
(Stokes, 1932, p. 130).  In this Stokes was akin to Nietzsche criticizing \'93the man of }{\i\f0\fs24 ressentiment}{\f0\fs24  . . .  his reaction  . . .  felt instead of being acted  . . .  [repressed] in conventionalized Christian sentiment\'94
 (Read, 2002, pp. 58, 182).
\par Much better, Stokes theorized, examples of early Renaissance marble carvings in
 Florence and Verona, and of the early Renaissance architecture and sculpture of the Palazzo Ducale in Urbino, and of the Tempio in Rimini.  For they achieve outward opening, unifying, full flowering, blossoming.  \'93For what else is civilization,\'94
 he asked, \'93but a converting of formless power to organized show, to outwardness?\'94 (Stokes, 1932, p. 76).  In realizing passion, the best in art gives \'93eternity to content, to quality, to feeling experienced in the present.\'94
  The putto at Rimini, for instance, \'93symbolizes the process of living, that lies between Life and Death, the translation outwards of the formless flux of passions to definite, concentrated, objective form\'94 (Stokes, 1932, pp. 77, 119).
\par  Introducing \'93a distinction between carving and modelling\'94, similar to a contrast between poetry and prose which he had explored in his writings during the 1920s, Stokes cited, as an example, the \'93distinction between Greeks and Etruscans\'94
 (Stokes, 1932, pp. 50, 56).  Whereas, he argued, the carver respects the outer reality of his materials as means of externalizing his inner ideas, the modeller imposes his ideas on his material.  He treats it as though it had \'93no rights of its own\'94
 (Stokes, 1933, p. 307).  Carving, by contrast, manifests the essence of life.  It throws \'93an inner ferment outward into definite art and thought\'94.  Modelling, on the other hand, \'93is not uncovered but created\'94.  The modeller \'93
realizes his design with clay  . . .  he does not engage that conception as enclosed in his raw material\'94 (Stokes, 1934a, pp. 184, 235).
\par }\pard\plain \s20\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 Stokes\rquote 
 older brother, Philip, had been an enthusiastic geologist.  So too was Ruskin.  Geology was apparently his leading \'93passion\'94 (Hilton, 1985, p. 17).  Perhaps this contributed to Stokes beginning his 1934 book, \'93I write of stone\'94 
(Stokes, 1934a, p. 183), and to his enthusing about ways in which, in carving bas-reliefs for the Tempio, the sculptor, Agostino di Duccio, made outwardly manifest the geology of marble, its formation from water flowing over once living shelled creatures.
  Marble, Stokes wrote, lends itself particularly well to externalizing life within because of its translucence, its diffuse light and the polishing, rounding, and layering involved in its carving.  Furthermore, he argued, Agostino\rquote 
s mastery of perspective enabled him to reveal, graduate, flatten and relate each surface to the next so that the human life thereby depicted issues outwardly from the stone.  Stokes likened the result to \'93
flowers that thrust and open their faces to the sun\'94 (Stokes, 1934a, p. 252
).  Moreover, he went on, by replacing Christian with classical figures, Agostino translated into outward form the inner ideas such figures represent.  Agostino also rendered the inner fluidity from which marble is made: \'93his draperies,\'94
 wrote Stokes, \'93ope
n and close like the rhythmic washing to and fro of tresses of seaweed clothing a far rock beneath clear water  . . .  drawn up by a spring tide, by the curious influence of Diana [representing fecundity]  . . .  resurrected as the sods are upturned by th
e process she has set in motion\'94 (Stokes, 1934a, p. 300).  Alberti similarly used classical motifs to transform the original Gothic facade of the Tempio into \'93stone-blossom\'94 and \'93incrustation\'94.  The result conveys \'93
organic connexion between architectural members and between background and ornament\'94 with pilasters looking as if they had \'93grown from the wall-space  . . .  steadily like a flower\'94 (Stokes,1934a, p. 265).
\par }\pard\plain \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 
In another book, Stokes theorized more explicitly the healing outwardness of the performing as well as visual arts.  He described them as outer consummation of \'93inner ferment  . . .  in the form of display\'94
 (Stokes, 1934b, p. 23).  He wrote of ballet manifesting \'93dreams in the flesh, an inner world on an illuminated stage  . . .  externalized with all the insistence and the verve of which the outer world is capable\'94.  The ballerina \'93
shows us the deepest emotions as something theatrical or outward and self-contained\'94 (Stokes, 1934b, pp. 26, 39).  This is particularly the case in classical ballet, he added, with the dancer \'93turning out\'94 to reveal \'93
as much of himself as possible to the spectator\'94  (Stokes, 1934b, p. 78).   In a subsequent book, }{\i\f0\fs24 Russian Ballets }{\f0\fs24 (Stokes, 1935)}{\i\f0\fs24 , }{\f0\fs24 
he illustrated ways in which the way-wardness of inner dreams is made consistent in the outward firmness of a dancer in }{\i\f0\fs24 Les Sylphides}{\f0\fs24 , how a son\rquote s fantasy of potency is outwardly realized in }{\i\f0\fs24 The Firebird}{
\f0\fs24 , and how a couple\rquote s fears are externalized in }{\i\f0\fs24 Les Pr\'e9sages}{\f0\fs24 .
\par Still in analysis with Klein, Stokes now became a painter.  Writing about the art-work of his friend, Ben Nicholson, he described painting as synthesizing eye and brain such that \'93basic fantasies of inner disorder find their calm an
d come to be identified with objective harmony\'94 (Stokes, 1937a, p. 316).  Outer space in painting, he argued, affords us \'93wished-for certainty and freedom\'94
 from the inner disorder of love and hate.  Painting achieves this effect through the luminosity of inner or self-lit -- \'93as if breathing\'94
 -- matt surface colours rendering each and every form equally and immediately present (Stokes, 1937b, pp. 13, 18).  In this painting is an instance, he said, of what the Hegelian philosopher, F.H Bradley, called \'93identity in difference\'94
 (Stokes, 1937b, p. 33).  
\par Stokes illustrated the point with Bruegel\rquote s painting, }{\i\f0\fs24 The Fall of Icarus}{\f0\fs24 , which famously depicts outward life continuing despite Icarus\rquote s inwardly-driven self-destruction.  In particular he praised Bruegel\rquote 
s depiction of a peasant\rquote s blue shirt mirroring \'93the blue from the green-blue milky sea, whitened and fleeced from association with his sheep\'94, and a farmer with a plough \'93
belonging in very substance to that earth which he symbolically carved to greater fruitfulness\'94, his shape springing out from the \'93total insistence of all the landscape\'94 (Stokes, 1937b, pp. 71, 75).  In his own paintings -- in one called }{
\i\f0\fs24 West Penwih Moor}{\f0\fs24  for instance dated 1937 and now housed in the Tate \endash  Stokes ensured similar outer harmony and resonance of one colour and shape with another.
\par  Like the figures in Brueghel\rquote s }{\i\f0\fs24 Fall of Icarus}{\f0\fs24  he also became a farmer, at least a market gardener, during the Second World War when he lived in a house looking out over Cornwall\rquote s Carbis and St Ives Bay 
akin to the bays depicted in Brueghel\rquote s painting.  After the war he continued to reiterate his theory of art\rquote s healing outwardness in detailing the architecture of Venice as instance of the \'93intoxication\'94
 of the early Italian Renaissance with \'93showing outer form\'94, thereby, as he put it, \'93stabilizing an inner content as outer shape\'94
 (Stokes, 1945a, p. 12 n. 1).  >From 1945 onwards, however, he became much more explicitly psychoanalytic in his writing about the healing value of art.
\par In the first of several articles, for example, published in the }{\i\f0\fs24 International Journal of Psycho-Analysis }{\f0\fs24 in 1945, he quoted Freud, ironically given what I have written above, as support for his long-held belief in art \'93
transposing to the external world a formless inner nexus\'94 (Stok
es, 1945b, p. 177).  But, in now explicitly linking art with psychoanalysis, Stokes emphasized not so much the healing outwardness of art as its outwardly absorbing, encompassing, and containing what is otherwise fragmenting and fragmented, inside and out
.
  In this, despite his now often citing approvingly the theories of Klein, his aesthetics correspond more with the theories of Marion Milner and Wilfred Bion, both of whom regularly attended the Imago Group he helped found with the composer Robert Still i
n 1954.
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 Milner and Stokes
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 \tab 
Marion Milner was slightly older than Stokes.  Born on 1 February 1900, she had sought to protect herself from succumbing to mental breakdown as her father had when she was 11 by looking outward and drawing nature for diaries she
 kept through her teens.  Later, as a research psychologist working in the 19203 and 1930s with Cyril Burt, C.S. Myers, Elton Mayo, Susan Isaacs, and others, she began experimenting with the healing effects of \'93
putting something of myself out into the object I looked at\'94, as she put it in her 1934 book, }{\i\f0\fs24 A Life of One\rquote s Own}{\f0\fs24 
, written under the pseudonym, Joanna Field (Field, 1934, p. 99).  Experimenting, in looking at a painting, with this outward-oriented, contemplative discipline, she found, she said, that \'93
my mind settled down to complete absorption, oblivious to all but the harmonies of shape and colour which once again took on a life of their own and continued to grow out of the paint the longer I looked\'94 (Field, 1934,  p. 108).
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Reflecting on her own and her patients\rquote 
 experience of the healing effect of putting oneself outward into what one attends to externally in art and life, Milner took issue with Klein\rquote s theory of projective identification depicting such outwardness as pathological flight from inner r
eality into oneness with others outside oneself.  She argued, by contrast, that, far from being pathological, such oneness with what is other than and outside oneself can be healing.  Experiencing this, at least occasionally, she maintained, is essential 
t
o both creativity and mental health.  How else, she asked, can one feel fully alive?  She accordingly sought in her psychoanalytic work to enable her child and adult patients to recover this experience which she believed occurs regularly, if all goes well
, when we are babies.  
\par In her 1950 book, }{\i\f0\fs24 On Not Being Able to Paint}{\f0\fs24 , which has been enormously influential on art therapy, at least in England, she wrote of the integration of inner and outer in art
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 In the arts, although a bit of the outside world is altered, distorted from its \lquote natural\rquote 
 shape, to fit the inner experience, it is still a bit of the outside world, it is still paint or stone or spoken or written words or movements of bodies or sounds of instruments  . . .  the experience of outer and inner coi
nciding, which we blindly undergo when we fall in love, is consciously brought about in the arts, through the conscious acceptance of the as-if-ness of the experience and the conscious manipulation of malleable materials (Milner, 1950, p. 131)
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Milner went on, in her first major case history (an account of her analysis of Klein\rquote s 11-year-old grandson), to depict art as recapitulating from earliest childhood, \'93
[m]oments when the original \lquote poet\rquote  in each of us created the outside world for us, by finding the familiar in the unfamiliar\'94, moments akin, she said, to \'93visitations of the gods\'94 (Milner , 1952, p.184).  Without \'93
these state of illusion of oneness\'94, which she regarded as \'93a recurrently necessary phase in the continued growth of the sense of twoness\'94, she argued, \'93the world becomes grey, lacking in affective colouring, prosaic\'94
 (Milner, 1952, p. 191).  
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Milner thereby too issue, in effect, not only with Klein\rquote s pathologising of oneness with outwardness as manic and projective identification defence.  She 
also took issue with Freud\rquote 
s (1930) account of such oneness as an oceanic feeling resulting from defensive regeneration to earliest primary process wishful thinking.  The next year, 1953, she met, for the first time, Anton Ehrenzweig who had likewise taken
 issue, in effect, with Freud in emphasizing the healing oneness of inner and outer, depth and surface, primary process formlessness and secondary revision form in art (see e.g. Ehrenstein 1949-50, 1953).  Adrian Stokes in turn wrote similarly about art i
n a paper he first presented to the Imago Group, which Ehrenzweig, like Milner, regularly attended through the 1950s.
\par Stokes began his paper with his own aesthetic enthusiasms and those of his potter wife, Anne, by declaring, \'93I find in the clouds to-day the splendid shapes of T\rquote ang figures\'94.  To this he added, \'93
an impression occupies real salience for an artist when it suggests an entire and separate unity, though, at the same time, it seems joined to the heart of other, diverse, experiences, to possess with them a pulse in common\'94.  Indeed, he said, \'93
Because it combines the sense of fusion with the sense of object-otherness, we might say that art is an emblem of the state of being in love\'94 (Stokes, 1955, p.407).  He went on to invite his readers, as it were, into his outer world
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Let us now visit the new Rembrandt room at the National Gallery.  Here, on the walls, faces come softly but vividly from dark backgrounds, faces and hands that \'93realize
\'94 the sitters.  Drawing, texture, disposition, echoing toppling s
hape, seem to be a rich fructification of character rather than the physical representatives.  Such an effect depends on eliciting from us muscular response to the drawing and an increase of the usual correlating activities of vision.  We feel this appreh
ension of inner and outer actuality in prior terms of our muscular responses, let us say, to be benign.  (Stokes, 1955, p. 409)
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 How, though, he asked, are we to reconcile this with the theories of psychoanalysis which pathologize inner-outer fusion as melan
cholic or hypomanic delusion (Abraham, 1924), as defensive regression (Freud, 1930), or as manic or projective identification flight from inner reality (Klein, 1940, 1946)?  \'93
What, then, is to be made of oceanic feeling or merging with the breast as a constant initiator of the Form in art?\'94 he asked, adding \'93It testifies, surely, to a manic element?\'94
 (Stokes, 1955, p. 414).  Unperturbed, he went on to argue, as had Milner and Ehrenzweig before him, that the \'93representations of visual art\'94 do indeed draw us into an outer world in which art functions as \'93
the mode of order and distinctiveness for \lquote pre-existent\rquote  objects\'94 in inner reality.  Call this melancholic, manic, regressive, or projective identification pathological defence if you like.  Whatever you call it, Stokes maintained, \'93
It is my conviction not only that these are contrary elements fused in art but that there is a just proportion, founded upon a once simple link between them which make their harmony poignant and health-giving\'94 (Stokes, 1955, pp. 414-5).  
\par Marion Milner in turn cited Ehrenzweig in commenting that the revision in psychoanalysis of its previous pathologizing of oceanic and primary process feeling and thinking had, in part, been \'93stimulated by the problems raised by the nature of art\'94 (M
ilner, 1958, p. 211).  Stokes, however, did not cite Ehrenzweig.  Rather he now turned to Plato whose philosophy he had previously rejected in writing about Giorgione (see p.000 above).  In }{\i\f0\fs24 The Republic}{\f0\fs24  Plato described turning \'93
from the world of change until it [the mind] can bear to look straight at reality, and at the brightest of all realities which is what we call the Good\'94 (Plato, n.d., p. 283).  In the }{\i\f0\fs24 Phaedo}{\f0\fs24 
 he depicted the Good as entirely other than us, as innately known, and as subsequently outwardly knowable, albeit indirectly, \'93by the exercise of our senses upon sensible objects\'94 (Plato, n.d., pp. 283, 125).  
\par In 1949 Stokes had praised, by reference to Plato, the scientific and outer orientation of Quattro Cento art.  He noted the commitment of the Tempio\rquote s architect, Alberti, to \'93the Platonic idea of Absolute Beauty\'94.  He called it an aesthetic 
\'93drunk with outwardness  . . .  sublime exuberance\'94 (Stokes, 1949, p. 188).  Now, in his 1950s explicitly psychoanalytic writing about aesthetics, he combined Plato\rquote 
s philosophy of the Form of the Good with an outwardly-oriented version of Klein\rquote s theory.  He described order as effect of \'93the lively demand that aspects of the exterior world should be found to echo or, rather, to reinforce, stability\'94
 implying \'93being alive, loving, and being loved by the internal and external good object\'94 (Stokes, 1958a, pp. 96, 97; for more on Klein and Plato see Worledge 1995).
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 Bion and Stokes
\par }\pard\plain \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 Despite the outwardness of, and physical distance separating us from art, Stoke
s argued, painting and the other visual arts beneficently bring \'93the object nearer to us so as even to envelop us, principally in terms of tactile and kinaesthetic sensations\'94
 (Stokes, 1958a, p. 98).  This in turn led him to dwell on the account by the psychoanalyst, Wilfred Bion (1957) of \'93the minute splitting  . . .  not only of sense impressions but of thought processes\'94
 occurring in schizophrenia.  Similar fragmentation is particularly evident, Stokes noted, in \'93the breaking up and reconstitution of planes\'94
 in cubist painting (Stokes, 1958a, pp. 99, 109).  By translating inner fragmentation into outer form, he claimed, art makes this fragmentation \'93bearable\'94 (Stokes, 1958a, p.110).  Monet\rquote s work, he argued, is just such an example.  \'93
Some of his best paintings are of a frangible, crumbling world, ice-floes on the Seine and the thaws\'94.  Nevertheless, Stokes went on, \'93These too are pictures that convey envelopment or oneness.  We have the same feeling from his poppy-fields\'94
 (Stokes, 1958b, pp. 251-2). 
\par Perhaps this influenced Bion.  Certainly from 1959 onwards he came to understand the work of the psychoanalyst as akin to that of the artist in bringing together what Stokes called the \'93frangible, crumbling world\'94 of Monet\rquote 
s seascapes and poppy-field landscapes into enveloping oneness.  He wrote of schizophrenic defence against frustration through treating it not as food for thought but as \'93}{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 98 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{
\f0\fs24 -element\'94 fragments to be evacuated with the risk that they might then be experienced as externally persecuting \'93bizarre objects\'94.  This, Bion (e.g. 1959 }{\i\f0\fs24 et seq}{\f0\fs24 
) argued, calls for the analyst to attend to, take in, envelop, and transform through \'93dream-work-}{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 97 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 \'94 these otherwise unthinkable \'93}{\f0\fs24 
{\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 98 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 -elements\'94 into the \'93}{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 97 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 -elements\'94 needed for the patient\rquote 
s piecemeal self-sensations and sense data to be registered, stored, and known.  [For further details see Sayers, 2003.]  Bion likened the work of the psychoanalyst in this respect to that of Vermeer and of artists generally of whom he wrote
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 He is someone who is able to digest facts, i.e. sense data, and then to present the digested facts, my }{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 97 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt
\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 -elements, in a way that makes it possible for the weak assimilators to go on from there.  Thus the artist helps the non-artist to digest, say, the Little Street in Delft by doing }{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 97 \\f "Symbol"
 \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 -work on his sense impressions and \lquote publishing\rquote  the result so that others who could not \lquote dream\rquote  the Little Street itself can now digest the published }{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL
 97 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 -work of someone who could digest it. (Bion 1959 }{\i\f0\fs24 et seq}{\f0\fs24 , pp.143-4)
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Bion wrote this in a note dated 24 February 1960.  The next year Stokes wrote of art healing fragmenta
tion through outwardly enveloping and absorbing us just as Milner (1934) had written of healing absorbed contemplation of a painting (see p.000 above).  Or, as Stokes put it, \'93The great work of art is surrounded by silence.  It remains palpably 
\lquote out there\rquote , yet none the less enwraps us: we do not so much absorb as become ourselves absorbed\'94
 (Stokes, 1961, p. 158).   Artists may be similarly healed by becoming absorbed in drawing and painting.  As illustration Stokes quoted Ruskin\rquote s account in his autobiography, }{\i\f0\fs24 Praeterita }{\f0\fs24 
(completed in 1889), of being healed from crippling lassitude after lying \'93feverishly wakeful through the night\'94 through drawing an aspen tree
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Languidly, but not idly, I began to draw it; and as I drew, the languor passed away: the beautiful lines insisted on being traced \endash 
 without weariness.  More and more beautiful they became, as each rose out of the rest, and took its place in the air.  With wonder increasing every instant, I saw that they \'93composed\'94 themselves by finer laws than any kno
wn of men  (in Stokes, 1961, pp. 172-3)
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Stokes commented: \'93
It was a visionary and also an aesthetic experience: it marked the waning of a period of hypochondria and of psychosomatic illness: in the forms of an exterior perception Ruskin regained the measur
e of a good incorporated object  . . .   focused by the integrated body of the aspen tree\'94 (Stokes, 1961, p. 173).
\par \tab Perhaps this in turn influenced Bion.  Certainly he now conceptualized psychoanalysts as healing their patients\rquote  outwardly-projected }{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 98 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 -elements through 
\'93containing\'94 and thereby transforming them into bearable, knowable, and thinkable }{\f0\fs24 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 97 \\f "Symbol" \\s 12}{\fldrslt\f3\fs24}}}{\f0\fs24 -element form (Bion, 1962) just as Stokes had described art\rquote 
s healing value as residing in it outwardly enveloping and composing what might otherwise be distressingly frangible or fragmentary inside and out.  The next year Stokes (1963) again cited Bion\rquote 
s theories about schizophrenic fragmentation, adding ways in which art heals similar fragmentation through outwardly enveloping and encompassing it and us as in Turner\rquote s paintings of which he wrote
\par }\pard \ql \li1440\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin1440\itap0 {\f0\fs24 In the great last period, not only is the world washed clean by light, but humidity is sucked from water, the core of fire from flame, leaving an iridescence throu
gh which we witness an object\rquote s ceremonious identity: whereupon space and light envelop them and us, cement the world under the aegis of a boat at dawn between Cumaean headlands, or a yacht that gains the coast.  Together with Turner\rquote 
s whirlpool of fire an
d water we experience beneficence in space.  There abound calm scenes that would be sombre or forlorn without the gold, without the agitated pulse and delicacy in so light a key.  Beneficence is very widely scattered; encompasses from afar.  (Stokes, 1963
, p. 249)
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 \tab Possibly this all contributed to Bion foregrounding painting in his 1965 book, }{\i\f0\fs24 Transformations}{\f0\fs24 .  He began it by alluding to Monet\rquote 
s 1873 painting, }{\i\f0\fs24 Poppies}{\f0\fs24 .  \'93Suppose a painter sees a path through a field sown with poppies and paints it\'94, he wrote, \'93
at one end of the chain of events is the field of poppies, at the other a canvas with pigments disposed on its surface\'94 (Bion, 1965, p. 1).  He went on to argue that, just as Monet transformed inner impressions into outer form, psychoanalysts likewise 
transform into outer form the inner formlessness and fragmentation contributing to their patients\rquote  ills thereby making them and this formlessness well, whole, and bearable. 
\par \tab Furthermore, just as Stokes, in 1958, had allied Klein with Plato, so too did Bion
.  To this Bion added that the transformation by psychoanalysis of what is otherwise non-sensory and unknowable in their psychological encounter with their patients into a form that can be known is akin to Plato\rquote 
s notion of the unknowable Form of the Good being indirectly knowable through beholding beautiful works of art.  For, said Bion, \'93they serve to \lquote remind\rquote  the beholder of the beauty or the good which was once, but no longer is, known\'94
 (Bion, 1965, p. 138).  Bion also put this in Kantian and Christian terms as had the theologian, Rudolf Otto (1917), in writing about art reminding us of the numinous transcendence of what is holy.
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 Stokes, who had long celebrated Renaissance art as providing \'93a conception of the outside world to mitigate the transcendental bias of the Middle Ages\'94
 (Stokes, 1949, p. 210), might not have agreed.  Nevertheless he continued to cite Bion approvingly in, for instance, his 1965 book, }{\i\f0\fs24 The Invitation in Art}{\f0\fs24 .  Bion, to my knowledge, did not return the favour.  But he owned a copy of 
Stokes\rquote  1958 book about Plato and Klein, as well as Stokes\rquote  1963 book, }{\i\f0\fs24 Three Essays on the Painting of our Time}{\f0\fs24 , and his last book, }{\i\f0\fs24 Reflections on the Nude}{\f0\fs24 , inscribed \'93
W R Bion with great regard Adrian Stokes 14/8/67\'94.  In this book Stokes again emphasized the healing value of oneness, through meditative contemplation, with the outer \'93object-otherness\'94 of art (see p.000 above).  He again theorized art\rquote 
s healing value in terms of it outwardly enveloping inner and outer fragmentation.  To this he now added Bion\rquote s (1962) term, \'93containment\'94.  Writing about Picasso\rquote s painting, }{\i\f0\fs24 Three Dancers}{\f0\fs24 
, at the Tate, for instance, he said, its \'93agitated scene, though it is disruptive and difficult to understand  . . .  convinces us that an emotive or poetic whole is there ex
pressed, since the expressiveness is transmitted by a rich language of form  . . .  container of a sum of meanings\'94 (Stokes, 1967, p. 334). 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\b\f0\fs24 
\par Conclusion
\par }\pard \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 In describing Picasso\rquote s painting as using a rich language which is disruptive and difficult to understa
nd Stokes could have been describing his own writing.  It is often unsettling and obscure, building its effect, as it does, clause by clause, layer by layer, like the Renaissance carving he so much admired.  The resulting rich language can be difficult.  
B
ut it is also containing, unifying, healing even.  Art too, he theorized, is healing through its meditative contemplation resulting in outwardly absorbing containing by its object-otherness as I have sought to demonstrate through comparing and contrasting
 Stokes\rquote  aesthetics with that of Ruskin, Pater, Nietzsche, Bradley, and Pound; with the psychoanalytic writing of Freud, Jung, Klein, Milner, and Bion.  Most of all, I have sought to demonstrate ways in which Stokes\rquote 
 work fulfils the otherwise all too often unfulfilled promise of psychoanalysis and art as successors to religion in bringing together outer and inner reality as I said at the beginning.
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\par }\pard\plain \s1\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0 Worledge, N. (1995).  Psychoanalytic Aesthetics.  Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 of Kent.  
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f0\fs24 
\par }\pard\plain \s18\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 [healingaesartx1   14-10-03   7,863 words]}{
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f11\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f0\fs24 
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